The Evolution Of Rhetoric In The Electronic Age

The Evolution Of Rhetoric In The Electronic Age The reason for this research paper is to discuss the future rhetoric of our new Electronic Generation. Rhetoric is an art of public speaking and, in our day and age, electronics play a major part. This paper will explain the rhetorical aspects of this potential transformation into an all electronic world. The information of this paper will explain the history of rhetoric and how we got to where we are today. It will also speak of some the major philosophers about this change in our new generation. Rhetoric is defined as the art or study of using language effectively and persuasively. From ancient Greece to the late nineteenth century, it was an essential part of Western education to teach public speakers and writers to persuade listeners to action with arguments. At the turn of the 20th century, there was a profound interest of rhetorical study began to grow in the organization of departments of rhetoric and speech at colleges and universities, as well as the development of national and international professional organizations. Some modern theorists believe that it was important to restore the interest of the study of rhetoric because of the renewed importance of language and persuasion in the progressively reconciled environment of the twentieth century and through the twenty-first century, with the media spotlight on the wide difference s and analyses of political rhetoric and its result s. With the expansion of marketing and of mass media such as photography, telegraphy, ra dio, and film, rhetoric is being more notably conveyed into peoples lives. In spite of its legacy as a moral way for persuasion, rhetoric has come to take on negative undertones. Through the years, generations have forgotten whats the real meaning of rhetoric is and has somehow implicate that this word is deceptive and untrustworthy. Today, rhetoric is greatly utilized by mass media in a derogatory manner, particularly when associated to public policies and politicians. Rhetoric as a systematic study was developed by a group of orators, educators, and advocates called Sophists. In the book, The History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction by James Herrick, he states, Sophists employed paradoxes to shock their audiences, but also by this means to provoke debate and inquiry (Herrick, 2009). The Sophists outlook on rhetoric may very well have been the spark that ignited todays global misunderstanding on the meaning behind rhetoric. Sophists viewed rhetoric as a means that could unite pleasure with government. Sophists believed that words had the ability to medicate the audience. Although during this time when rhetoric was a skill with an increasingly expressive demand, it began to alter to a negative nuance as Platos criticisms grew more popular. The most primitive paradigm of rhetoric as a derogatory word can be followed back to Plato and his opinions about the Sophists. As one of Socrates renowned students, Plato often portrayed the Sophists as highly skillful writers who made the most of misleading language methods to persuade and influence audiences. Platos assumption on Sophism, also reiterated through the writings of Isocrates, was based on the gluttony, deception and the general lack of trust and apprehension for justice. Sophists could manipulate speech to make the worse situation appear better. The term Sophism continues to maintain the negative reputation in todays society. In Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric Refigured, author Susan Jarratt defines sophism as a derogatory term for a carefully crafted yet false argument aimed at deceiving someone (Jarratt, 1998). Sophism is also used today to describe rhetorical circumstances in which emotional demands may be emphasized over logical demands. Sophism and rhetoric have shared these negative connections into our modern era. As Christianity began to extend in the Middle Ages after the fall of the Roman Empire, societies started to connect rhetoric as expressive and fancy, but it was short of any knowledge or general idea. Due to the Church not believing expressiveness was an important aspect to communication and speech, rhetoric was diminished and viewed depreciatively. By the sixteenth century, rhetorics reputation had been revitalized, but some prominent scholars continued to pass judgment on rhetoric. Reformer Peter Ramus questioned rhetoric by stating that rhetoric was mainly a kind of verbal enhancement and as a result of little consequence. As Ramus praised dialectic and called rhetoric into question, rhetoric lost its theoretical influence, and was again viewed as nothing more than a stylistic, pessimistic speech tool. In his scheme of things, the five components of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of rhetoric. Instead, invention and disposition were determined to fall solely under the heading of dialectic, while style, delivery, and memory were all that stayed for rhetoric. In The Electronic Word: Technology, Democracy, and Arts written by Richard Lanham, he expresses that Ramus separated thought from language by developing a replica of education in which reason breaks free of speech (Lanham, 1993, pp. 157-158). Language bec ame an impartial tool for conveying the findings of other disciplines, and was no longer viewed as the basis of an art form that has been mastered by an educated person for its own sake. Another major contributor to the development of Western thinking about rhetoric is the great Greek philosopher, Aristotle. Aristotle was a student of Plato who famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that is still repays careful study today. One of the most significant contributions of Aristotles approach was that he saw rhetoric as one of the three basic essentials of philosophy, in conjunction with logic and dialectic. In the opening words of Rhetoric authored by Aristotle, he asserts that rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic (Aristotle Roberts, 1954, p. 30). Logic, according to Aristotle, is the area of philosophy concerned with ways of thinking to reach scientific assurance while dialectic and rhetoric are concerned with possibility and therefore is the parts of philosophy best suited to human affairs. Dialectic is an instrument for theoretical debate; it is a way for listeners to assess credible knowledge with the intention of learning. Rhetoric is an instrument for sensible debate; it is a way for convincing a common group of listeners using reliable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric together create a relationship for a method of persuasion derived from knowledge rather than playing on emotion. Today, modern scholars emphasize why rhetoric has taken on a derogatory connotation. They presume that there is a tendency to forget rhetorics past, which has damaged democracy by labeling all political speech as trickery, as well as unsuccessfully teaching the general public to vitally understand and make use of good speech. Richard Lanham (Lanham, 1993, pp. 243-246) disputed that the model of electronic words and texts has a natural potential to encourage democratic discourse and human thinking. Nevertheless, the source for Lanhams optimistic view of the digital age a perception that electronic textually makes no invidious distinctions between high and low culture, commercial and pure usage, talented or chance creation, visual or auditory stimulus, iconic or alphabetic information (Lanham, 1993, pp. 14) is besieged by some basic opposition which not only imply but reinforce all these oppositions. As Richard Lanham documented in his book, The Electronic Word, the presentation of w ords through the static textual display of print is quickly being replaced by the more fluid textual forms of the computer screen, which are radically altering our existing definitions of literacy. Lanham believes these new textual forms such as e-mail, network exchanges, and hypertext are changing our intellectual perception back to the root source of Western rhetoric: We can . . . think of electronic prose as moving back toward the world of oral rhetoric, where gestural symmetries were permitted and sound was omnipresent. Any prose text, by the very nature of the denial/expression tensions that create and animate it, oscillates back and forth between literate self-denial and oral permissiveness, but electronic text does so much more self-consciously, simply by the volatile nature of the written surface. A volatile surface invites us to intensify rather than subdue this oscillation, make it more rather than less self-conscious (Lanham, 1993). In addition, while some may feel the electronic explosion of inert textual structures serves to mark the death of the Western education, as demonstrated in the linear structures of print, Lanham believes it completes fairly the opposite and brings literacy more similar to another oscillation that Western thinking has always displayed. Reflecting the internal tension of elitism versus populism inherent in distinct ludic and resistance versions of postmodern theory, Lanhams digital rhetoric exemplifies an unsure oscillation between critical and aesthetic approaches to hypertext on one hand, and a more popular democratic appreciation of electronic media, the sub-cultural intertextuality of global culture, and hypermedia on the other. As Lanham exemplifies many of the hypermedia theorists and critics retained their privileged literary and critical assumptions, undermining claimed connections to the popular cultural extensions of electronic media. This is possibly because of the opposing and subjective ways in which an all-purpose hypermedia model alternates between focusing on designed interactive descriptions and the act of reading or reception as an essentially unintentional process, and (2) decreases human language and communication generally to the expressions of distinct images and information consequently also supporting an underlying conflict between print-age examples of language-use and the new and ever-present popular electronic culture. The integration of hypertext concept into a general hypermedia framework of electronic literacy is more than only a matter of describing hypermedia as hypertext extended to include electronic multimedia effects such as digitized sound and graphics. Postmodern literary models of meaning as a contingent product and play of open-ended narratives, language games, and reader-response clearly lent themselves to theorizing about hypertext. Such privileged models of textuality, reception, and aesthetic process or objects were implicitly at odds with the semiotic move to go from the subtle and intricate textual allusions of open-ended narratives mediated as verbal language-use to include the media of electronic popular culture in terms of language reduced to and even replaced by electronic imagery obsessed with the transitory fixations of human memory and desi re. The residual print assumptions of a convergence between the hypermedia model of electronic literacy and postmodern critical theories or practices is perhaps most effectively analyzed in terms of how points out, hypertext encourages both writers and readers to confront and work consciously and concretely with deconstruction, intertextuality, the decentering of the author, and the readers complicity with the construction of the text. In other words, the idea of hypertext effectively reinforces the postmodernist theories of such theorists as Barthes, Derrida, and Baudrillard that natural languages and other systems of representationespecially those involving electronic visual mediaare autonomous in relation to the diverse and contingent contexts of individual language users, specific language events, and discrete forms of verbal or visual representation. The twentieth century is perhaps the most exhilarating period in which to study rhetoric since the Middle Age. This has come about with the beginning of what is generally referred to as the New Rhetoric; the rediscovery of rhetorics epistemological significance and the critical role of persuasion and argument to our everyday lives. It is impossible to name all the causes for this new-found importance or all the contributors to the New Rhetoric, but among the most influential we must certainly consider I.A. Richards whose work on metaphor associated rhetoric to literary studies, Chaim Perelman, whose book The New Rhetoric is now a classic, Steven Toulmin, best known for his inquiries of argument, and possibly the most influential rhetorician of our era, Kenneth Burke. In teaching in the Middle Ages and years before, we have determined that rhetoric was a tool to teach students how to write good essays and, in other areas, it was a tool for persuasion. Rhetoric is widely used in business, politics, and technical writing. For example, the structure and style of letters, memos, speeches, and other kinds of documents follow the rhetorical standards. The old rhetoric dealt primarily with the structure and content of an essay or presentation. With New Rhetoric, rhetoric is given new limits. It now includes philosophy and sociology. It is no longer how to inscribe a good essay or speak a good speech, but how well we recognize communication and its influences on our lives. With the discovery of the World Wide Web (WWW), rhetoric had received a new, powerful field of its purpose. For the most part, rhetorical principles reveal its power in different kinds of Web projects. The five parts of the classical notion invention, arrangement, memory, delivery, and styleare one way we might start mediating about how to apply rhetorical ideas to writings in the twenty-first century and beyond. After all, literacy has undergone many changes in the pastfrom orality, to writing, to printand it will likely undergo many more, in ways we cannot even now imagine. We need to think about how computers and computer writing will impact the future of rhetoric, of composition and composition classes, and of literacy itself. Making hypertext documents on the WWW (World Wide Web) offers a wide range of freedom. The most astonishing difference in an electronic document is the skills to provide fairly instant access to the resources you gather during the invention process. To fully exploit the capabilities of hypertext, you should offer hypertext links that lead directly to the material you use in supporting your claims. Providing links to this material involves the audience in the invention process; your audience can have access to your primary materials and verify the validity of your evidence. Locating supporting information is greatly facilitated by search engines that can explore the Web for you, tracking down useful and relevant evidence to support your own presentations. In addition, many Web sites grant permission to use their digitized images. In an electronic document, there is no easy distinction between a beginning, middle, and an end. Determining a suitable arrangement for your electronic document depends on your creativity. Innovative arrangements are largely a matter of style can have powerful emotional appeal for an audience. Gorgias recognized the persuasive power of atypical uses of language, for changes in the usual order and meaning affected the audience. Today in the electronic age, Gorgias insights still remains true, but of course their submissions have expanded. Writing documents for the WWW creates an entirely new world, or cyberspace, one wide open to new ways of expression, and maybe meaning. An image, like a figure of speech can communicate meaning and provide your rhetorical principle. The same can be said for color. Color, like a trope, covers your meaning, provides your reason or at least it can. Of course, and image, and color has to provide a purpose but it must be suitable to the situation. Memory is fourth of the ancient standard of rhetoric. In the ancient law courts and assemblies, men were often called upon to deliver speeches without the help of written comments. The Greeks and Romans developed intricate memory systems that allowed them to give speeches precisely as it was written. Memory on the Web means some entirely different. Most people take it to mean the ways that readers can remember where they are and where they have been while they surf the net. In the days when text was written only to be conveyed verbally, the ability to persuasively delivery of a speech was one of the premier talents. Delivery is obviously related to the other standards, especially style, because your usefulness as an orator of text varying in large parts on the method of delivery that you chooses. In the hypertext world, delivery takes on some new obstacles. Were no longer certain who will be listening to our speech, nor are we positive that theyll even hear it the same way. The documents we generate are read by browsers, which decipher the HTML code for presenting on the monitor. Because each of these browsers maintains very different features, successful delivery is contingent on writing documents that predict the difference among browsers. Rhetoric, this art of persuasion, totally distorted our insight of the truth. Everything depends on the ability of speaker or writer to affectively captivate the audience using his or her credibility, detailed style, and compelling arguments. Anything can be shown as the truth. Due to this capability to alter anything to the truth the Rhetoric became an indispensable tool in the business communication. How to persuade people to purchase goods, services, ideasanything, that business word generates? How to encourage them that this is a necessity or this is the truth? It cannot be accomplished without rhetoric. The rhetorical theories had been altered by our highly technological age, but they did not modify in their real meaning. There is the truth that subsist in rhetoricits values itself. Rhetoric has not lost its inability in 21st century, but vice versa, we can observe that rhetorical theories reveal itself in any document individually from technology that was used for its establishing. On the one handRhetorical theories are used in todays writing, publishing, and electronic documents as a way of persuasion. On the other handrhetoric is no longer an essential humanist study of structure and content but a study on how and why we communicate and what we can learn from the methods of communication.

Mother love

A family that consist of a mother, father and a child. From the moment an expectant mom have a positive pregnancy test, her heart Is overwhelmed with Joy and excitement. That a she is carrying a life In her womb. A life that she have to keep for nine months. That finally she can call her self a mother. That after nine months she will finally carry a child In her own arms.In the span of nine months, every doctors appointment Is excellent. To know If the baby Is doing well. Each milestone Is memorable. From the first time of hearing your baby's voice for the first time thru ultrasound. A heartbeat that pounds so fast. Then sooner you will feel the first movements of the child In your womb. A feeling that someone Is poking your womb from wealth. Sooner, movements are more recognizable that make this stage of pregnancy more exciting.At that stage, the baby an recognize sounds and voices that you can now talk to the baby in you womb. As months pass by, you won't even recognize how time pa ss by. While waiting for the final month and day that you will finally give birth to your child. Everybody is excited from buying clothes for the child and choosing names from simple to complicated ones. And until the final day, the birth of a child gives Joy not only to the mother who carried it for nine months but with the rest of the family.

America “roar” for in the 1920’s Essay

In America, the 1920’s were considered to be a ‘roaring’ time for all Americans. However, it seems to be that this ‘roar’ was an illusion for some Americans. This time was known as Americas ‘age of excess’. In 1921, the gross national product was $74 billion, by 1229, it was $104.4 billion, but how much of this was affecting all Americans. Within this essay, I will be looking at different actions, which affected different people in different ways. For example: while the rich got richer, the poor made very little headway, with many families becoming poorer in the 1920’s. By the end of the 1920’s the number of people living below the poverty line (those who do not earn enough to buy food, clothing and basic shelter) had increased to an estimated 42 percent of the American population. Many people through out America thought alcohol was harmful and dangerous and welcomed the introduction of prohibition. In 1919, after the First World War, they got what they wanted. Congress (the American parliament) passed the 18th Amendment to the Constitution. The 18th Amendment stated†¦ â€Å"†¦after one year the manufacture, sale of, transporting of intoxicating liquors for beverage purpose, the importing and exporting of such liquors is hereby prohibited.† The Volstead Act, which was passed the same year, gave the federal governments the power to enforce prohibition, and then backed the 18th Amendment and from the 16th January 1920, the USA went â€Å"Dry†. The people who opposed alcohol argued that it caused social problems such as violence, crime, poverty and sexual promiscuity. They believed that when it was banned, then America would be a better, healthier and a more moral place to live. There were many organisations, which led campaigns against alcohol. They included The Anti-Saloon League of America and The Women’s Christian Temperance Union. Therefore, with the introduction of prohibition they had got their way. In some individual states, prohibition laws were already being enforced. There were thirteen totally â€Å"Dry† states by 1919, and many other states had introduced some kind of control on the sale and manufacture  of alcohol. After the First World War, because many of America’s brewers were of German descent there was a lot of anti-German feeling and campaigners were able to argue that it would be patriotic to close the brewers down. Therefore, a decline in the amount of alcohol being produced appeared. Prohibition wasn’t something that happened overnight, there had been a gradually build up to it. Even though prohibition seemed like a good idea in theory, it had almost the exact opposite effect from what it intended. Instead of reducing the crime rate, it managed to increase it, and even more people were drinking alcohol. Prohibition forced the general public to act illegally to get the much-wanted alcohol. This illegal alcohol was expensive, the rich were able to have it delivered to there homes, but most people by the end of the 1920’s were making alcohol at home in illegal stills and was know as ‘moonshine’. The homemade alcohol was often dangerous and could cause blindness, serious illness or even death. Some alcohol was still being produced legally for industrial processes (within hospitals etc), and even though the government added poison deliberately to this alcohol, much of it went missing. The stolen alcohol was resold for drinking purposes, and as a result, the rate of alcohol poisoning rose from 98 in 1920 to 760 in 1926. Smugglers or ‘Bootleggers’ as they were often known, brought illegal alcohol supplies into cities. They often smuggled rum from the West Indies and whiskey often crossed the river from Canada to Detroit. It soon became big business and a lot of money could be made from it bootleggers organised themselves into gangs to transport the alcohol and these gangs soon became rich and powerful. The profits were so great that people would risk imprisonment. Now that there was alcohol entering the country, Americans wanted somewhere where they were able to drink and socialize at the same time, so illegal drinking saloons called ‘speakeasies’ started to appear. Before prohibition there had been 15,000 legal saloons in New York, by 1932 there were around 32,000 speakeasies in the city. Bootleggers or gangsters often ran these speakeasies. The biggest affect that prohibition had on American society was the increase in organised crime. When the demand for illegal alcohol became apparent,  gangsters saw a way to make a lot of money. Every city has its own gangsters. Dutch Schultz ran New York, Chester La Mare ruled Detroit and Dion O’Banion controlled Chicago. Dion O’Banion sang in the choir of the Holy Name Cathedral and the headquarters for his gang was his flower shop, but O’ Banion still murdered at least 25 people. Like many gangsters, he became very rich through bootlegging liquor. He controlled most of the bootlegging business in South Chicago while another gangster John Torrio controlled the whole liquor trade in North Chicago. Rival gangs fought with each other for the rights to supply speakeasies with alcohol. This rivalry often caused huge confrontations between the gangs, many gang members were killed and alcohol supplies hijacked during these confrontations. Unfortunately it wasn’t only gang members who got hurt, if you were associated with gang members, a friend or sibling for example, then you’re life was often in danger. Hundreds of innocent people lose their lives because they managed to be ‘in the wrong place at the wrong time’. In Chicago alone, there were 227 gang murders between 1927 and 1931, which no one was ever convicted for. Gangsters were able to take control of cities by bribing local policemen, judges and politicians. This meant that gangsters could operate with little fear of arrest. The most notorious city that was ruled by gangsters was Chicago, where the Mayor ‘Big Bill’ Thompson was known to be a close associate of Torrio and his new partner, who would become one of the best-known gangsters of all time, Al Capone. Torrio and Capone had gained control over him by offering huge bribes. Consequently, Big Bill did not interfere with the gangs activities and he sacked any city officials who caused problems for Torrio. In addition, many of the badly paid police force were also willing to accept bribes to keep out of their business. The aim of prohibition was to stop things like violence, crime, poverty and sexual promiscuity which people said alcohol caused. , But instead of stopping these things, it increased them. There was a rise in organised crime and violence related to it. With the introduction of prohibition organisations like The Anti-Saloon League of America and The Women’s Christian Temperance Union, who opposed to alcohol got what they wanted. In  addition, the prohibition era ‘roared’ for bootleggers and gangsters, who were making a huge fortune on supplying the alcohol to the general public. The prohibition era did not ‘roar for the general public, they were forced into breaking the law, meaning they faced the fear of arrest and they also had to pay extortionate prices for the illegal alcohol. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was notorious for stirring up hatred and prejudice against anyone who did not fit their ideals. After the American civil war, in the mid-19th century, a terrorist organisation was started in the southern states, to try to maintain white supremacy over the newly freed black slaves. The Klan did it best to terrorise blacks who tried to take part in local politics. There name comes from the Greek word Kuklos meaning circle. The members of the group wore white robes and pointed hoods to conceal their identities. In time, the Klan died out, until 1915 when William Simmons started up the Klan again. He added a new list of target for the Klan’s hatred, as well as blacks: Jews, Catholics, homosexuals, foreigners and anyone of liberal views. By 1925 the Klan had 5 million members, and it’s were members were not just in the southern states, but those outside the southern states were more anti-catholic then anti-black. One American magazine, the New York World wrote a report on the Klan’s activities, it found out: there had been 5 kidnappings, 43 orders for Negroes to leave town, 27 tar and featherings, 41 floggings, 1 branding with acid, 1 mutilation and 4 murders. In many ways, the beliefs of the Klan were like those of the Nazis in Germany and the fascists in Italy. By the end of the 1920’s the Klan’s membership had gone into decline, its reputation was undermined by a number of scandals. This included the conviction of D.C Stephenson, the Klan leader of the state of Indiana; he was convicted for the abduction, rape and multination of a girl who later killed herself. His actions stunned America, it shocked most Klansmen and millions left the Klan because of it. The Klan’s influence rapidly died and soon the movement collapsed, but did not die out altogether; there are still some Americans who belong to the Ku Klux Klan. During the Klan’s era, it is easy to see who it didn’t ‘roar’ for, anyone who was on the Klan’s list of targets. This meant Jews, Catholics, homosexuals,  foreigners, anyone of liberal views and of course black people. This era ‘roared’ for people involved in the Klan, they were part of a club and were reigning supreme over those on their hate list. The biggest concentration of black people was in the southern states; they were either labourers or ‘sharecroppers’ (they paid a share of their crops to landowners). Three quarters of a million black farm workers lost their jobs during the 1920’s, due to farming depression. Many made the journey northwards to find work in the bigger cities. By the end of the 1920’s 25 percent of black people were living in cities. There were great opportunities for blacks in the cities, but they were still faced with discrimination and were forced to live in great poverty. In Harlem in New York, blacks lived in poorer housing, but paid a higher rent. In Chicago, blacks suffered great prejudice from longer-established white residents; if blacks attempted to move away from the black belt to adjacent neighbourhoods, they got a very hostile reception. They also got a similar reception from the poor white residents. In Chicago again, if blacks attempted to use playgrounds, parks and beaches in the Irish or Polish districts they would be set upon by gangs of whites who referred to them selves ‘athletic clubs’. This resulted in the black communities in the northern cities were in ghetto areas, where one racial group was concentrated and others were excluded. Sixty percent of black women worked as low paid domestic servants in white-households. Car factories hired blacks in small numbers: but most owners operated an all white policy. Also through out the 1920s the black Americans had the Ku Klux Klan after them. Through out the 1920’s there is suddenly an interest in a lot of black culture. The popularity of Jazz music had turned many black Americans into media figure, and soon the Black neighbourhood in Harlem, New York because a centre of musical creativity. On performer, Paul Robeson managed to fight back against the prejudice to become one of America’s most celebrated performers. The 1920’s have been called the ‘Jazz age’ due to the fact that black music, whether it was jazz, soul or blues, was dominate over all other music at the time. This music had arrived in the northern cites at the time of the great black migration from the southern states. It had a huge effect on the young, but older people saw it as a corrupting force linked to sexual  excess. The music fed into popular music, dance halls and stage musicals. Magazines like the Messenger, the Crusader and Challenge put forward a black viewpoint on America at the time. Through the form of books and poems, there was also a rise in black pride. Black poets like Lansten brown and Sterling Brown helped to raise the profile of black writers. Some blacks started to stand up to the prejudice, and doing their own thing. Marcus Gavery was the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association in New York, which spread, to most major American cities. They encouraged blacks to take pride in who they were. It also helped blacks to set up their own businesses and by the mid 1920’s there were UNIA restaurants, grocery stores, laundries and even a printing works hop. The 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for all black Americans, some, like those involved in the music scene did give some blacks recognition and this meant they were able to earn a little more. But it didn’t matter what they did, black Americans through out America suffered from prejudice and discrimination, if jobs had to be cut then blacks would lose theirs first, they were forced to live in poorer conditions etc. Overall the 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ era for black Americans, but this was not a new thing and had been going on for years before 1920’s and would for quite a few years afterwards. The 1920’s were known as America’s ‘Jazz Age’, which during this time the mass entertainment industry flourished. Music, cinema and sport gained popularity during this time. The film industry had begun before the First World War, but its popularity soared during the 1920’s. Audience numbers more then doubled during this time and by 1929 it was estimated that about 95 million Americans were going to the cinema per week. Hollywood in California became the centre of the film industry. It was here that great movie companies like MGM, Warner Brothers and Paramount had their studios and produced the films, which were captivating the American public. These companies were making huge amounts of money as the popularity of going to the cinema increased. From the 1920’s thousands of wannabe film stars were pouring into Hollywood in hopes of  getting into the movie business. The first early films were ‘silent movies’ and people like Gloria Swanson, Clara Bow, Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Rudolph Valentino and Mary Pickford became stars of the silent screen. As the films were silent, cinemas would hire piano players to play the backgro und music during the film. Then in 1928 the first ‘talkies’ were made and film was no longer silent. This introduction was good for the movie companies as more people were going to see their movie, but not for all silent movie actors. Many of the actors who stared in silent movie may have looked good but a lot of them had terrible voices or, so with the introduction of ‘talkies’ they were losing their jobs. The American movie industry was going strong and would only start to decline with the introduction of television after the Second World War. Not everybody approved of cinema; many people were worried by the impact of the movies especially on the morals of young people. Many older Americans were horrified by the much ‘freer sex’ of the 1920’s and the movie industries blatant use of sex symbols like Rudolph Valentino and Clara Bow. These older Americans were shocked by the seeming lack of morals in Hollywood films and in private lives of some of the movie stars. Many people in the movie industry feared that the many Hollywood scandals would be the e nd on the motion-picture industry. Scandals like the mysterious death of a young girl at a party given by Fatty Arbuckle (a famous comic film star). This lead to a call for censorship, but Hollywood got in first by setting up the Hays code which specified that: ‘no film shall be produced which will lower the moral standards of those who see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience shall never be thrown to the side of crime, wrong-doing, evil or sin.’ Nudity was also not allowed and the length of kisses was restricted to no longer then ten feet of film. Therefore, each kiss scene had to be shot twice, once for the American audience and one to be sent over for the European audiences. Even the poor were able to join the movie craze. In Chicago, there were hundreds of cinemas showing four performances a day. The working people spent more then half their leisure budget on going to the cinema, even those who were so poor they were getting Mothers’ Aid Assistance went often. It only cost 10-20 cents for a t icket. The beginning of the 1920’s ‘roared’ for movie companies like MGM, Warner  Brothers and Paramount who were making huge sums of money from the movie craze. Up to 1928 silent film star were making a lot of money, but after the first ‘talkie’ was made many lost their jobs because even though they had good looks they did not have good voices need for these new films. Also going to the cinema was accessible to nearly everybody, even the poor, because it was so cheap. There was some opposition from older people who felt that there would be a negative impact on the morals of young people. The 1920’s were an era of great change for women. During the First World War, millions of women had taken over jobs that previously, had been exclusively for men, proving that they could do any job just as well as a man and the money they earned gave them new independence. After the war, during the 1920’s, even more women started to work. With this new financial independence, which had been unknown in the past, meant that they no longer had to live at home or rely on men to supply them with money for the things they wanted and needed. By the end of the 1920’s 10 million American women were in paid employment, a 25% increase on 1920. Even women who did not earn their own money were increasingly seen as the ones who made the decisions about whether to buy new items for the home. There is evidence that women’s role in choosing cars triggers the change in Ford’s ‘only black’ policy, and made other colours widely available. Also in 1920, wom en were given the vote; this gave them more political power. Many of the social habits and restrictions had changed since from before the First World War. For example, clothes had changed; the tight waisted, ankle-length, voluminous dresses of pre-war days had been replaced with waist less, knee length, lightweight dresses. They gave greater freedom of movement as well as being more daring. Hair, which in pre-war years would have been expected to be kept long was cut short in a new bobbed style, and this style became of liberation among women. Make up became popular and sales of it boomed. As well as women’s physical appearance, other habits changed as well. Women drove cars and smoked in public, which before the war had been frowned upon. They went out without a chaperon and as contraception became generally available, they became less dependant on men and could make their own decisions on how to live. The divorce rate rose as women became more liberated; they were less likely to stay in unhappy marriages now. In 1914, there were 100,000  divorces, while in 1929 there were twice as more. Many middle class women had more free time due to many new domestic labour-saving products like vacuum cleaners and washing machines. If they had a car (as many did at this time), then they no longer had to be bound at home. They were able to go out and do what they wanted. Flapper was a name given to a liberated urban woman. Few women would have identified themselves as flappers. Flappers represented an extreme example of the changes affecting women. Flappers could be identified by their short skirts, bobbed hair, powdered knees, bright clothes and lots of make-up. Not all people approved of these changes. Most women were not flappers, they were too busy working and raising families to go out partying. Most of these changes had a greater impact on city life then it did for those who lived in the country, where traditional values of decency and respectability still acted as a powerful restraint on how people behaved. Older people found these changes improper and threatening, they felt that things should be kept the same and had no desire for change. Most of the time the biggest opposition to these changes was from men, who did not like the fact that they were losing control, there were not as dominant now, women were taking control of their own lives an d were less reliable on men. Some men, mostly young men found these changes exciting and appealing and thought the changes were good. A lot was changing for these young middle-class urban women especially, but in some case, there was not complete change. In work, women were paid less then men even thought they did the same job. The reason women’s employment rose was because they were cheaper then male employees. In politics, women may have been given more political freedom, but they were no way equal to men. Political parties wanted the women’s vote but did not want women as political candidates as they considered them ‘unelectable’. There were only a handful of women elected by 1929, although many, such as Eleanor Roosevelt, had a high public standing. There was a lot of change for women in the 1920’s, but the change did not affect all American women. Women who lived in rural area were hardly affected by the changes, whilst middle-class women living in the urban areas felt the changes most. Some women bought these changes to an extreme (flappers) whilst most felt the changes in subtle ways, like the right to  vote and not being bound at home, having the freedom to travel away from home. There was opposition from older people and many men. In the 1920’s women were still not completely equal to men, but it was the start and the 1920’s were quite a ‘roaring’ time for most American women. Farming slumped during the 1920’s, this was because as European farming recovered after the First World War, Europe no longer needed as much American meat and grain. American farmers also had to compete with farmers from Argentina and Canada. Farm income dropped from $22 billion to $13 billion in 1928. 30 million people earned a living through farming and half of Americans lived in rural areas. New machinery had made American farming more efficient then any other in the world, but it was producing too much, more than Americans needed. During WW1 America had shipped millions of tons of grain to Europe; it had become the main market for American farm exports. However, European countries were so bankrupt after the war that many could not afford to buy American farm produce any more. To make matters worse America turned to a state of isolation, this meant that the tariff barriers were put up, so that it would be expensive for anybody who wanted to sell their produce in America, bu t America could still sell their produce to them reasonably. When the other countries realised what was happening they raised their tariff barriers, making it too expensive for America to sell their produce their, meaning farms were over-producing. America was up against strong competition from Canadian farmers who were supply grain to the world market; the price of grain dropped and many small farmers went broke. More then three million farming families were earning less then $1000 a year. As there income dropped, it became harder for farmers to pay their mortgage payments; some were evicted while others had to sell their land to clear debts. Between 1920 and 1930, the number of farms in America dropped for the first time ever. Farm labourers found themselves out of work, especially as mechanisation meant that fewer were needed for the running of farms. Many went as migrant workers to California, and others went to industrial cities, but those who remained often barely scraped a living. It wasn’t just the fact that America had isolated itself from the rest of the worlds, which made the price of grain drop; it was also the t introduction of prohibition meaning farmers were producing more grain then was needed. The 1920’s were  not bad for all farmers, big mechanised farms did well, as did the Midwestern grain growers and the California and Florida fruit growers who made a good living by shipping there produce in large quantities. Those farmers who grew luxury produce suffered less as well. The rich Americans wanted fresh fruit and vegetables through out the year, so shipments of lettuce to the cities, for example, rose from 14,000 crates in 1920 to 52,000 in 1928. America’s black population was hit badly; three quarters of a million black farm workers lost their jobs during the 1920’s. Black people would be the first people to lose their jobs, so nearly all black Americans who worked on farms, lost their jobs. Overall, the 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for those peoples involved in the farming industry, expect for a select few. People who owned large mechanised farms did well, as did fruit farmers. This time was especially ruff for the unskilled labourers, who most of the time they were black, who were fired first. It was very difficult for them to get jobs anywhere else. This era was also especially ruff on the farming families, who had farmed the land for generations, and they now had to sell it off to pay their debts. During the 1920’s America isolated itself from the rest of the world, mostly due to the fact that many American people blamed the rest of the world for dragging them into a war, which resulted in American deaths. They wanted to forget about the war and wanted to return to the policy of isolation it had maintained before the war. Woodrow Wilson had wanted to set up strong international relations but joining the League of Nations (his own idea), but many American politicians were strongly against the Versailles Treaty. Under the constitution, the Senate has to agree to all treaties with foreign countries, so in March 1920 the senate rejected the Versailles Treaty. After this, there was a Republican landslide and they took control of the House of Representatives and the Senate, and America returned to a policy of isolation. During the 1920’s, America’s relations with European countries were bad. Wilson had a policy of encouraging free trade, but during the 1920’s this was reversed. In 1922, the Fordney-McCumber Tariff act placed high tariffs on all foreign goods being sold in the United States. This meant that foreign good were very expensive and American good were cheap.  This meant that other countries found it very hard to sell in America, so in retaliation European countries placed tariffs on American goods. This now meant that American farms were over-producing with no one buying the goods overseas. The beginning of the isolation of America in the 1920 was good for farmers because more of their produce was being sold at home and abroad, but after the other countries realised what was going on and raised their own tariff barriers, the farmers suffered because they were overproducing. During the 1920’s there was a consumer boom, which was encouraged by the easily available credit system. It meant that people could buy goods like cars, fridges etc, even thought they did not have enough money to pay for the goods on the spot. Firms and companies arranged for the customers to pay by instalments or hire purchase. Hire purchase was pioneered by Henry Ford and the car companies in America at the time, hire purchase enabled the customer to buy the goods they wanted with a small deposit and pay the rest off in weekly or monthly supplements. It was a good scheme to begin with, people who didn’t have a lot of money could afford to have luxuries they would not normally have had the chance to have. Unfortunately, soon nearly everybody had a car or a fridge and didn’t need another one, but the factories were still producing large numbers of goods, this coupled with the European tariffs on American goods, the factories were now over-producing. Then in 1929, the worst possible thing happened, Wall Street crashed. Many businesses went bankrupt due to this and people were not able to pay there weekly or monthly supplements on their good, meaning the companies were not getting any money. The Wall Street Crash was the start of the great depression in America, during this time, people could not afford these goods anymore and most were taken back. At the beginning of mass-production, credit and hire purchase ‘roared’ for the general public and the businesses. The business had found a way to churn out a lot of good and were now getting a steady income of people paying on credit. The general public were able to purchase luxury good even if they didn’t have the money too. It ‘roared’ until the consumer market became  saturated, people didn’t need to buy any more good. When Wall Street crash this made it worse because not only were the general public not buying anymore good but now they couldn’t afford to pay off the credit and most companies were going bankrupt. So in the 1920’s it ‘roared’ for businesses and the general public using credit and hire purchase at the beginning, but not at the end. The 1920’s did not ‘roar’ for all Americans, for some the 1920’s were a ‘roaring’ time and for others it was not. The prohibition era did not ‘roar for the general public, they were forced into breaking the law, meaning they faced the fear of arrest and they also had to pay extortionate prices for the illegal alcohol. In addition, the aim of prohibition was to stop things like violence, crime, poverty and sexual promiscuity which people said alcohol caused. , But instead of stopping these things, it increased them. There is a rise in organised crime and violence related to it, this endangered the general public. For gangsters, bootleggers and people involved in the illegal liquor trade the prohibition era was a roaring time, they were making a huge fortune on supplying the illegal alcohol to the general public. With the reintroduction of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), the 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for anybody on their target list, for example black people. For anybody who agreed to what the KKK was about then they had no worries, they had a group to belong to and they were able to reign supreme over those who were on their target list. The 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for all black Americans. Some who were involved in the music scene did give some blacks recognition and this meant they were able to earn a little more. However, it didn’t matter what they did, black Americans through out America suffered from prejudice and discrimination. The 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ era for black Americans. The beginning of the 1920’s ‘roared’ for movie companies like MGM, Warner Brothers and Paramount who were making huge sums of money from the movie craze. Up to 1928 silent film star were making a lot of money, but after the first ‘talkie’ was made many lost their jobs because even though they had good looks they did not have good voices need for these new films. Also going to the cinema was accessible to nearly everybody, even the poor, because it was so cheap. There was some opposition from older people who felt that there  would be a negati ve impact on the morals of young people. There was a lot of change for women in the 1920’s, but the change did not affect all American women. Women who lived in rural area were hardly affected by the changes, whilst middle-class women living in the urban areas felt the changes most. Some women bought these changes to an extreme (flappers) whilst most felt the changes in subtle ways, like the right to vote and not being bound at home, having the freedom to travel away from home. There was opposition from older people and many men. In the 1920’s women were still not completely equal to men, but it was the start and the 1920’s were quite a ‘roaring’ time for most American women. The 1920’s were not a ‘roaring’ time for those peoples involved in the farming industry, expect for a select few. People who owned large mechanised farms did well, as did fruit farmers. This time was especially ruff for the unskilled labourers, who most of the time they were black, who were fired first. It was very difficult for them to get jobs anywhere else. This era was also especially ruff on the farm ing families, who had farmed the land for generations, and they now had to sell it off to pay their debts. America readopted it’s policy of isolation, this included raising the Tariffs on good entering the country. In retaliation, European countries placed tariffs on American goods. This now meant that American farms were over-producing with no one buying the goods overseas. At the beginning of mass-production, credit and hire purchase, it ‘roared’ for the general public and the businesses. The business had found a way to churn out a lot of good and were now getting a steady income of people paying on credit. The general public were able to purchase luxury good even if they didn’t have the money too. It ‘roared’ until the consumer market became saturated, people didn’t need to buy any more good. When Wall Street crash this made it worse because not only were the general public not buying anymore good but now they couldn’t afford to pay off the credit and most companies were going bankrupt. Therefore, in the 1920’s it ‘roared’ for businesses and the general public using credit and hire purchase at the beginning, but not at the end. As you can see the 1920 roared for some people and didn’t for others. America, to the rest of the world gave the impression that everything was wonderful and everybody was happy, and for some people this was true, but for most it wasn’t and that view was in fact a mask to hide the bad things which were going on.

The Constitution Of The United States Essay - 1070 Words

QUESTION 1: The Constitution of the United States creates a national government that divides power among the three branches. The purpose of the division is to create a system of checks and balances in order to preclude or lower the possibility of an authoritarian rule. Article I of the Constitution is the most relevant to the procedure for adopting legislation. Article I create the legislative power and vest it in Congress. Specifically, Article I, Section VIII establishes the enumerated rights and powers Congress possess. Generally, the necessary and proper clause in Section VIII is meant to expand the right Congress has â€Å"†¦to make all Laws which are necessary and proper†¦Ã¢â‚¬  On the contrary, this clause may be seen as a limiting agent. Congress should only adopt law, which are deemed necessary. Necessary means what is mandatory and requisite. In this context, regulating or adopting laws is fundamental in order to achieve a compelling interest. If Congress wants to take acti on to fulfill a compelling interest, they must do so under the Presentment Clause. (Article I, Section 7 Clause 2-3) The premise behind this clause is that Congress may legislate only if there is bicameralism, passage by both the House and the Senate, and presentment, giving the bill to the president to sign or veto. Without the Presentment Clause, Congress may delegate and create laws that inherently violate the separation of powers principles. INS v. Chadha case uses the Presentment Clause to establishShow MoreRelatedThe United States Constitution And The Constitution Essay1491 Words   |  6 PagesThe United States Constitution, this very detailed group of words was written in 1787, but it did not take effect until after it was ratified in 1789, when it replaced the Articles of Confederation. It remains the basic law of the United States then and till the present day of 2016. The first state to ratify the Constitution was Delaware; the last of the original thirteen to ratify was Rhode Island and since only nine were required, this was two years after it went into effect. When the U.S. ConstitutionRead MoreThe Constitution Of The United States Constitution Essay1185 Words   |  5 Pages(framers’ of the U.S. Constitution) position on the Presidency: The framers experienced the abuse of the English monarchs and their colonial governors. As a result, the framers were skeptical of the excessive executive authority. Furthermore, they also feared excessive legislative powers. This was something that the Articles of Confederation had given their own state legislatures. 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Even though the Constitution was made for the interests of the people ofRead MoreThe Constitution Of The United States1338 Words   |  6 Pages The Constitution is the basis of law in The United States and has been since it was written in 1789. Since then it has been amended 27 times with the first ten amendments collectively known as the Bill of Rights. The US Constitution was preceded by the Articles of Confederation and supported by the Federalist Papers which we will touch more on later. James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson all wrote or influenced The Constitution in a very important way. 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